Form follows function or
Cultural Origins of the Dusack

by Maestro Paul Macdonald, Macdonald Academy of Arms

What lay on the surface

The dusack has been known to researchers and practitioners of European martial arts for many years now, having been studied in various historical treatises such as Joachim Meyers Kunst de Fechtens from 1570, which details a complete system for this unique weapon.

The dusack was a weapon unique, but not uncommon, as Meyer entreats twice about just how common this weapon form was, when he says it is “after the sword, not only the weapon most used by us (Germans)” and that he “discussed this weapon so extensively because commonly youths are led to skill in it.” (from translated text by Jeffrey L. Forgeng).

Dusack fencing from Joachim Meyer`s 1570 treatise
(image provided courtesy of the Higgins Armoury Museum)

The earliest depiction of the dusack appears in the treatise of Paulus Hector Mair, from around 1550, which means that from treatise illustrations alone, the dusack as a weapon can confidently be pre-dated to some years or decades before that year.

The latest depiction of dusack being used as a weapon in Europe appears to be an illustration of an 18th century French salle from Diederot`s Encyclopedia which shows a variety of weapons being used including dusacks (seen in use centre right of the salle). It is not surprising that we have not seen any original examples from these periods, as the life-span of a dusack was surely not too long, it being the affordable and expendable practice weapon of the day that made good kindling once it had served its purpose in the salle.

The Fencing Salle – Diederot`s Encyclopedia

But what about before and after?.....did this weapon just suddenly appear and disappear? Given the historical emergence of most weapons, this hypotheses is most unlikely. Just as living matter has been subject to gradual evolutionary development over centuries, so has the sword.

Breaking New Ground

I recently discovered a rather interesting 19th century Dutch style painted wood dusack for sale from a Pennsylvanian estate which first caught my attention and then raised many questions. Firstly, why was this made in the first place? Was this evidence of dusack fencing still being taught at this time? How did it find its way to the US, or was it taught and used there also?
The dimensions and form of this dusack were identical to that of weapons depicted in Meyer and other C16th – C17th German illustrations, but this later creation was to reveal far more historical background than any paper image.

Examining the item closer, it was clear that this was crafted for a specific purpose and not necessarily for salle use.
The painting was on one side only, the back face was flat and part of the edge was worn down, not notched in any way that might suggest edge-on-edge contact but smoothly worn and only for a specific part of the edge (from about halfway to the 3rd quarter its length away from the hand).

The painting was floral and in the typical style of rudimentary folk art that can be found throughout C19th Europe and the US on a variety of possessions and tools such as knifes, textiles, leather-work and furniture.

This discovery steered my convictions towards the idea that this could be used as a weapon, but was more than likely first crafted as some form of practical cultural tool.

Further investigation revealed the true nature and purposeful origins of the dusack.

True Nature Uncovered

This was a scutching knife, a wooden agricultural and domestic tool used for the preparation of flax in the process of linen production. Such tools are necessarily used in the sixth stage of flax harvest and refinement when using the traditional hand methods of production.

Once the flax plant is harvested by either being hand pulled by the roots or cut close to them, the seeds are removed in a process known as rippling. Then the flax is retted to first loosen unwanted fibres, which can take several weeks to achieve. After the initial preparation of the flax, it is then ready for breaking, which breaks the dry outer bark from the internal fibre and then scutching, which involves the use of the wooden knife to remove the broken bark from the pure fibre.

Above image reproduced with kind permission of the artist, R.P. Hale

The wooden scutching knife is by nature of function usually between 19” and 23” long, a single piece of wood often with a hole for the grip incorporating a knucklebow, flat on one side, broad bladed (usually 3”- 5”), usually curved and commonly with a clipped back edge.

In short, a dusack.

The above example made in 1843 (authors collection) is of the same form as seen in Jacob Sutor`s treatise and also in several contemporary salle and fencing scenes of the C16th and C17th. Evidence of flax scutching use can clearly be seen along the length of the edge.

Many scutching knives are instantly recogniseable to European martial artists as they conform to basic patterns seen in German historical fencing treatises.

Scutching knife from 1889 with clearly visible thicker back as evident in treatise of Joachim Meyer.

Early – mid C19th example with carved detail.

Defining Forms and Characteristics

The most basic form of scutching knives are the scramasax and `cricket bat` or `paddle` style knives. These are usually unpainted and very simple in form. Scramasax style knives are single edged, not as broad as the curved dusack style and are usually thicker in construction as a result.

A pair of scramasax style scutching knives (authors collection). The top example originates from Canada and the lower example, carved with `1877` and the name `Anna` on the reverse face, is from the Netherlands.

The cricket bat or paddle style knives are oval or diamond section in form, double edged and usually unpainted and undecorated. This construction allows either edge to be used and with either hand, doubling the effective lifespan of the blade.

A classic, simple form and unmarked `cricket bat` or `paddle` style knife.

Most dusack style scutching knives from the 19th century are painted in simple colours or with rudimentary folk art over one side of the blade, usually floral in design (the other face left plain as this is in direct contact with flax bark and fibre during use).
Often, the year of crafting is carved or painted on, along with the initials of the owner that the blade was made for.

Plain early example with evidence of scutching use.Image courtesy of Janet Fram & Borge Hermansen,
The Country Gallery.

Simple form and simply painted scutching knife with owner initials. Image courtesy of Janet Fram & Borge Hermansen, The Country Gallery.

Broad bladed example (authors collection) painted with floral pattern and marked JJD 1838. Scutching use is evident on the edge.

Swedish knife from 1848 with carved and painted decoration.

An 1887 scutching knife unusually decorated on the alternative side. A rare example of a left handed dusack! Image courtesy of Janet Fram & Borge Hermansen, The Country Gallery.

Tools, Weapons and Wedding Gifts

It has also been common practice in Scandanavian countries, particularly Sweden, to have made and decorated high quality scutching knives for presentation as wedding gifts. This is quite understandable as the knife is a functional fertility symbol and blesses the union with the promise of sustenance, health and a continued future.

Very broad wedding gift blade from 1858 with side guard incorporated into knucklebow.

Similar style to knife above with high quality construction and decoration, made as a wedding gift.

In Place and Time..

The above discoveries certainly explain why I happened across a 19th century decorated dusack being sold from a Pennsylvania estate. Pennsylvania was a primary production centre for growing flax in the US throughout the C18th and C19th, as the traditional hand methods of linen production were introduced directly from Sweden from the mid C17th onwards.
Scutching knives would have been commonplace tools of their day in this part of the World, as much as they would have been throughout mainland Europe.

The American colony of New Sweden included the lands of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Delaware and would have seen the import of many Swedish cultural practices and tools, both domestic and agricultural. This would have been even more noticeable in the late C19th, as over one million Swedes emigrated to the US from 1870 – 1910.

Evidence of the communal familiarity with scutching and use of the knife in the US is depicted in the 1885 painting of a scutching bee by Lincoln Park. This painting was exhibited at the Indiana County (Pennsylvania) Fair in 1885 and depicts a traditional community event, where the locals have gathered for the purpose of putting their scutching knifes to practical use as the local flax harvest has been retted and broken, ready for scutching.

Scutching Bee by Lincoln Park, 1885.

The knife`s secondary function as a weapon is still evident here, as a few of the local lassies are depicted chasing their menfolk with them. It appears that auld traditions die hard.

Flax production still continues worldwide, as the US harvests 767,000 acres annually, with over 90% of this grown in North Dakota. This has not however required a modern day demand for scutching knives, as the traditional hand methods of flax harvesting and linen production gave way to industrial machinery such as the scutching turbine, which has been in use from the 1860`s onwards.

So simply speaking, old production methods required the old tools, and one of those tools also served as a functional weapon if required. Here we also see distinct parallels between the traditions of Eastern martial arts and Western martial arts, where both have seen domestic and agricultural tools used as martial weapons. The flail (both single and double handed), billhook, staff and dusack are all Western examples of these.

In the case of the dusack, we see it employed as a martial weapon in European treatises from C16th onwards, but given the now known facts of its origins, how might this pre-date conceptions of it`s historical existence and use?
Scutching knives were not a recent innovation in the C16th, nor were they neccessarily German in origin.

Two original Anglo-Scandanavian wooden flax pounders (of willow and alder) along with a wooden scutching knife were found following archaeological digs at Coppergate, York, dating from the Viking period. Backdating even further, linen weaving and spinning has been depicted on several ancient Egyptian wall paintings.
Egyptian pharaohs were wrapped in especially fine linen, such as Ramasses II, who died in 1213BC. The material, now over 3,000 years old, was discovered in an almost perfect state and found to be of extremely high quality, with 540 threads to the inch. Modern linens are marketed as luxurious with a 200 thread count and super luxurious at 400 threads to the inch.

This means that the ancient Egyptians were highly developed in the art of linen production, proving themselves as skilled craftsmen at all production stages, particularly in the refinement stages of scutching and hackling, which necessitated the use of wooden scutching knives.

Up until now, the dusack has been seen as a largely German tool, but scutching knives have been commonly used for thousands of years throughout most of the Western and Eastern World, in all countries where soil and conditions allow the steady growth and production of the flax or hemp plant. We now know that scutching knives in Europe were used throughout Sweden, Norway, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Ireland and until the 19th century, Scotland. The old Celtic scutching methods were exported to Nova Scotia after the Highland clearances, and millions of emigrating Europeans also exported these traditional skills to the US between the 17th and 19th centuries.

The Martial Edge

The practical origins of the dusack now appear clear as the scutching knife. So, purposeful tool that it was, what evidence of martial use and weapon form remains?

Extant scutching knives appear to be entirely functional in form for the simple job they were designed to do. Either a broad and thin blade or a less broad, thicker blade that is just long enough to serve its purpose, minimum knuckle protection and often with a curved edge. There is however, one element common to many forms that serves no purpose for scutching, but is designed for martial technique only.

The clipped back edge.

This is evident on many Scandanavian originals, and sometimes with a double rising point. The clipped back edge is also clearly seen on steel falchions through European history and is used for striking with many techniques mentioned in fencing treatises. The sole purpose of a double rising clipped back edge is that it provides an additional pronounced point with which to effectively strike.

Joachim Meyer discusses striking with the clipped back edge (also known as the crooked or short edge) in several specific dusack techniques of secondary cuts such as the Krumphauw, Kurtzhauw, Brummerhauw, Weckerhauw, Blendthauw and Schnellhauw.

Undated broad bladed knife with distinct deep clipped back edge and point. Image courtesy of Janet Fram & Borge Hermansen, The Country Gallery.

Swedish example from 1915 with clipped and filed back edge.

1901 example (authors collection) with double rise clipped back edge.

Scutching knife in use. This is a C19th original from Southern Sweden. Note the double rise clipped back edge and purposely thicker spine near the hand to allow an extended thumb grip, as also required for dusack fencing.

Harvesting Results

So it appears that scutching knives made even in the late C19th and early C20th still carry the evidence of earlier martial form in their construction.

They also were much more widely used throughout Europe and pre-date in form and function far earlier than previously imagined from what little descriptive and illustrative evidence existed within the limited framework of historical fencing treatises.

What we now know determines that in order to discover the very roots of our subject, we must walk a broad field of study and dig deep to cultivate understanding and reap our rewards of knowledge.

Acknowledgements

l Higgins Armoury Museum, Massachusetts, for kind permission to include Meyer treatise illustration.
l Janet Fram and Borge Hermansen, The Country Gallery, for kind permission to reproduce photographic images.
l Jeffrey L. Forgeng, author of The Art of Combat, Greenhill Press.
l R.P. Hale, artist, for kind permission to reproduce linen production artwork.